Early Hick

    Overview

    The Hick language was the primary tongue of pre-Kalassarian Senera. While no longer spoken, it survives in place names, maritime terminology, and religious traditions throughout modern Senera.

    A Kalassarian language grammatical sketch of Early and Middle Hick was unearthed, along with a lexicon was found in an unsealed room underneath the Admiralty's Helm in Surrey-on-the-Brams. Details in this is a modern analysis of that sketch using modern linguistic methods.

    Early Hick shows an ergative-absolutive alignment with rich derivational morphology and a sophisticated spatial reference system. Core grammatical relations are marked through suffixes, while derivational processes primarily use prefixes.

    A reconstruction of a hypothetical Proto-Hick is also provided, inferenced from regional dialects and the historical development of Hick.

    Historical Development

    Pre-Hick Period (before ~600 PF)

    While the exact developments remain unclear, comparison of Early Hick forms with remnant vocabulary suggests several possible sound changes:

    1. Final vowels begin devoicing in unstressed syllables

      • *thralu > [ˈθra.lu̥]
      • *wardu > [ˈwar.du̥]
      • *taku > [ˈta.ku̥]

    2. Devoiced vowels reduce to schwa

      • [ˈθra.lu̥] > [ˈθra.lə]
      • [ˈwar.du̥] > [ˈwar.də]
      • [ˈta.ku̥] > [ˈta.kə]

    Early Hick (~600 PF onward)

    1. Final schwa deletion
      • [ˈθra.lə] > [ˈθral]
      • [ˈwar.də] > [ˈward]
      • [ˈta.kə] > [ˈtak]
    • Purely oral tradition
    • Core maritime and nature vocabulary established
    • Complex compound system develops
    • Sacred/ritual terminology crystallizes

    Middle Hick (300 PF to 105 AI)

    • More consistent contact with pre-Kalassarian traders
    • Maritime trade vocabulary expansion
    • Astronomical terminology development
    • Sacred site naming conventions formalize
    • Initial written forms appear (borrowed script)

    Late Hick/Early Seneran (105 AI to 400 AI)

    • Kalassarian settlement period begins
    • Administrative terminology adoption
    • Initial sound changes:
      • Unstressed vowel reduction begins
      • Compound simplification starts
      • Some liquid deletion word-internally

    Middle Seneran (400 AI to 900 AI)

    • Major sound changes:
      • Full unstressed vowel reduction
      • Resyllabification for CV preference
      • Systematic liquid/nasal deletion
      • Stress-related vowel lengthening
    • Example: [in.nes.bel] → [i.ne.spel]

    Modern Seneran (900 AI to present)

    • Extensive contact with Apgarian kingdoms
    • Final changes:
      • Complete syllable restructuring
      • Final cluster simplification
      • Vowel length phonemicization
    • Example: [i.ne.spel] → [ine.spell]

    Proto-Hick Reconstruction

    See: Proto-Hick

    Overview

    Early Hick shows a relatively conservative phonological system inherited from Proto-Hick, with significant changes occurring mainly in compound formation and unstressed syllables. See: Historical Development

    Segmental Inventory

    Consonants

    LabialDentalAlveolarVelarGlottal
    Stopsp bt dk g'
    Fricativesf vθsh
    Nasalsmn
    Liquidsl r
    Glidesw

    Note: The glottal stop is written as <'> in phonemic transcription and [ʔ] in phonetic transcription.

    Examples:

    • /'al/ [ʔal] "person"
    • /'el/ [ʔel] "speaker"

    Vowels

    FrontCentralBack
    Highiu
    Mideəo
    Lowæa

    See: Vowel Allophony for positional variants

    Phonotactics

    Syllable Structure

    • Basic Pattern: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
    • Special Pattern: (C)(C)VV for permitted diphthongs
    • Stress: Initial syllable unless marked

    Consonant Clusters

    Initial Clusters

    TypeClustersExamples
    Common/br-, dr-, tr-, kr-, fl-, pl-, kl-/bram, dren, tral
    Sacred/θr-/thral, thren
    Archaic/gn-, kn-/gnal, knes

    Final Clusters

    TypeClustersExamples
    Common/-st, -sk, -sp/mest, risk, lisp
    Limited/-ks, -ls, -rs/teks, mals, tors

    See: Sound Changes in Compounds

    Vowel Sequences

    1. Permitted Diphthongs:

      • Within morphemes: /ai/, /ei/
      • At morpheme boundaries:
        • /ei-ae/ → [ei]
        • /ai-ae/ → [ae]
      • No three-vowel sequences

    2. Examples:

      • /kei-aes/ → [ke.es] "sky flow"
      • /thrai-aes/ → [thraes] "sacred flow"
      • /brai-aes/ → [braes] "swift flow"

    Weight Distribution Constraints

    1. Stress Patterns

      • Primary stress falls on first syllable of simple words
      • In compounds:
        • a. First element maintains primary stress
        • b. Second element reduces unless sacred/ritual term
        • c. Three-element compounds:
          • Primary stress on first element
          • Secondary stress on final element
          • Middle element reduces
      • Exceptions:
        • Sacred/ritual terms resist reduction
        • Maritime terms maintain second element weight
        • Recent compounds may preserve full weight
        • Morphological boundaries may preserve weight

      Examples:

      • tor-mal → [ˈto.məl] "great pool"
      • thral-kel → [ˈθral.kel] "sacred sky" (no reduction - sacred term)
      • tor-ma-ter → [ˈtor.mə.ˌter] "great-pool-flow"
      • bram-ma-ter → [ˈbram.ma.ˌter] "tide-vessel" (no reduction - maritime)

    Prosodic System

    Stress Patterns

    1. Primary Stress
      • Falls on first syllable of root in isolation
      • Maintained in prefixation: ma-tor → [ˈma.tor]
      • Shifts in compounds: tor-mal → [tor.ˈmal]
    2. Secondary Stress
      • In three-syllable compounds: tor-ma-ter → [ˈtor.mə.ˌter]
      • In prefix chains: ma-ka-tor → [ˈma.kə.ˌtor]
    3. Stress-Related Changes
      • Unstressed /a/ → [ə]
      • Stressed vowels resist reduction
      • Compound stress affects vowel quality

    Compound Phonology

    Sound Changes in Compounds

    1. Liquid Deletion

      • tor-mal → tomal "lake"
      • val-mal → vamal "spirit pool"
      • thral-gral → thragral "sacred earth"

    2. Nasal Deletion

      • bram-mal → bramal "tidal pool"
      • bran-kel → brakel "morning sky"

    3. Vowel Coalescence

      • kei-aes → kees "sky flow"
      • thrai-aes → thraes "sacred flow"

    Compound Types

    1. Element + Element

      • kur-tin → kurtin "bronze" (copper-tin)
      • mal-ter → mater "stream" (pool-flow)

    2. Descriptor + Element

      • gra-kur → grakur "grey copper"
      • tor-mal → tomal "great pool"

    Allophonic Rules

    Vowel Allophony

    The vowel /a/ surfaces as [ə]:

    1. After sibilants and affricates:

      • /sak/ → [sək] "wolf"
      • /sal/ → [səl] "stone"

    2. After voiceless stops in unstressed syllables:

      • /karan/ → [kərən] "stream"
      • /tamal/ → [təmal] "pool-like"

    3. In grammatical prefixes:

    4. Between identical consonants:

      • /malam/ → [məlam] "pooled"
      • /ranar/ → [rənər] "flowing"

    Stress-Dependent Reduction

    1. In Compounds:

      • First element maintains stress: 'tor-mal → ['tor.məl]
      • Second element reduced: mal-'ter → [məl.'ter]

    2. With Prefixes:

      • Stressed prefix blocks reduction: 'ma-tor → ['ma.tor]
      • Unstressed prefix shows reduction: ka-'tor → [kə.'tor]

    3. In Three-syllable Words:

      • Primary stress blocks reduction: 'ka-ra-nal → ['ka.rə.nəl]
      • Secondary stress partially blocks: ˌka-'ra-nal → [ˌka.'ra.nəl]

    Exceptions

    • Maintains [a] in:

    Consonant Allophony

    [Section to be added]

    Historical Sound Changes

    See: Historical Development for chronological stages

    Core Grammar

    Ergative-Absolutive Alignment

    • -el [el] (ERG): marks agent of transitive verbs
    • -es [es] (ABS): marks patient of transitive & sole argument of intransitive

    Early Hick can be described as a language with an ergative-absolutive alignment. Languages with this alignment treat the "subject" of an intransitive verb like the "object" of a transitive verb. This "object" or "patient" referent is marked with the absolutive case marker -es. The "subject" or "agent" referent is marked with the ergative case marker -el.

    materokel 'al-es venitar
handler-ERG person-ABS burden.SUP
"The handler carries the person"

    In the above example, the handler materok is the agent of the verb "to carry" and is marked with the ergative case marker -el. The person 'al is the patient of the verb and is marked with the absolutive case marker -es.

    'ales barak'er
person-ABS walk-VERB
"The person walks"

    The single argument of the intransitive verb barak'er is the one performing the action, but because Early Hick is an ergative-absolutive language, the absolutive case marker -es is used to mark the referent.

    Development of the Ergative Case Marking -el

    The Early Hick ergative marker -el derives from Proto-Hick *mela through parallel but distinct development from the definite article:

    1. Sound Changes:

      • *mela > *mel (final vowel loss)
      • *mel > -el (initial m-loss in unstressed position)

    2. Functional Development:

      • Original meaning: definite animate marker
      • Intermediate stage: marks definite agents
      • Final stage: general ergative marker

    Verbal System

    See: Verbal Morphology for details on:

    Early Hick has no true verb class. Verbs are formed from nouns and property concepts and are marked with the verbalizer affix -'er.

    'al'isel ven'er 'ales
person.PROX.ERG yoke.VERB person.ABS
this person carries a person
I am carrying a person

    The above example shows the word ven that means yoke or burden with the verbalizer -er affixed to it. It then acts as the verb of the sentence that means "to carry".

    While some words, such as barak "walk", semantically denote actions, the verbalizer affix -'er is still applied in most instances.

    'ales barak'er
person-ABS walk-VERB
"The person walks."

    Spatial Case System

    (See: Spatial Case System

    Early Hick uses case marking to modify a word to indicate the direction an action is performed.

    The spatial cases are:

    • -las (ILL): "inward, into"
    • -imris (ELL): "outward, from"
    • -itar (SUPE): "upward, upon"
    • -esp (SUB): "under, below"
    • -asam (SUBE): "downward, onto"

    These spatial cases are typically appended to verbal words to indicate the direction an action is performed. When used with transitive verbs, the spatial cases indicate the direction of the action done by the agent, in relation to the patient.

    branum galel belaes rismateres
PAST man-ERG entrance-ILL reed boat-ABS
The man inward-entrance the reed boat.
The man entered the reed boat.

    The above example shows the man gal entering the boat rismater. There is another way to express this sentence using the spatial case marker, removing the explicit verbal word bel "entrance".

    branum gales rismater-aes
PAST man-ABS reed boat-ILL
The man entered the reed boat.

    Since the man is moving inward, into the reed boat, and there is no reason to specify that the man entered through the entrance, the spatial case marker -aes may be appended to rismater to indicate that the man entered the boat.

    Temporal System

    Tense Marking

    See: Clause Structure and Word Order

    The basic temporal markers are added to the beginning of a clause to indicate the time of the action.

    Tense MarkerMeaning
    branumpast
    branrumfar past
    mulsumfuture
    branum 'ales venitar
PAST person-ABS yoke-SUPE
PAST person lift
"The person lifted."

    branrum 'ales venitar
FAR PAST person-ABS yoke-SUPE
FAR PAST person lifted
"The person lifted long ago."

    mulsum 'ales venitar
FUT person-ABS yoke-SUPE
"The person will lift."

    Conjunctions

    Additive Coordination

    Early Hick uses ru [ru] "and" (< Proto-Hick *storu "grow") with the particle o marking coordinated elements:

    kor o toren o ru-el
[cow PART horse PART AND]-ERG
"the cow and horse (as agent)"

    The coordinator can take case marking to show the role of the coordinated phrase:

    • ru-el: coordinated elements as agent
    • ru-es: coordinated elements as patient/subject

    Temporal Coordination

    Temporal relationships between clauses use specialized coordinators:

    • 'aterbran [ʔa.ter.bran] "before" (lit. "what-flow-dawn")
    • 'aterimris [ʔa.te.rim.ris] "after" (lit. "what-flow-from")
    • 'atertel [ʔa.ter.tel] "until" (lit. "what-flow-end")

    Dependent clauses use nominalized verbs:

    [kor o toren o] gras'er-es 'aterimris
[cow PART horse PART] graze-ABS after-ELL
"after the cow and horse grazed"

    Position affects emphasis:

    • Initial: sets temporal frame for discourse
    • Final: neutral narrative position

    Causal Subordinator

    imris [im.ris] "because" < Proto-Hick *imeru-ris "towards breath/spirit"

    • Functions as a subordinator marking causal relationships
    • Grammaticalized from Proto-Hick compound of *imeru "breath/spirit" + *ris (LAT)
    • Maintains ergative-absolutive alignment in both clauses
    • Can appear clause-initially or between clauses

    Position and Usage

    Conjunctions interact with Early Hick's information structure:

    1. Can take case marking to show grammatical roles
    2. Initial position emphasizes the relationship
    3. Final position gives neutral narrative flow
    4. With dependent clauses, verbs take nominal form

    Examples:

    imris toranes ter'er, 'ales barak'er
SUB   river-ABS flow-VERB person-ABS walk-VERB
"Because the river flows, the person walks"

'ales barak'er imris toranes ter'er
person-ABS walk-VERB SUB river-ABS flow-VERB
"The person walks because the river flows"

    Note: The same form appears as the ellative case marker -imris, showing parallel grammaticalization from spatial/directional meaning to both case marking and subordination.

    Morphology

    Nominal Morphology

    Agentive Marking

    1. Primary Marker
      • -ok [ok]: agentive nominalizer (forms agent nouns, both occupational and active) Examples:
      • materok "boatman" < mater-ok "vessel-AGENT" (one who works with vessels)
      • wardok "guide" < ward-ok "direct-AGENT" (one who directs)
      • threnok "watcher" < thren-ok "watch-AGENT" (one who watches)

    Size and Intensity Markers

    1. Diminutive (li-)

      • Prefix meaning "small, lesser"
      • Examples:
        • limal [li.mal] "small pool, pond"
        • liren [li.ren] "small deer, fawn"
        • lines [li.nes] "small fish, minnow"

    2. Augmentative (tor-)

      • Prefix meaning "great, mighty" (from "height, peak")
      • Examples:
        • tornes [tor.nes] "great fish, whale"
        • topel [to.pel] "great bear" (tor-pel → topel, liquid deletion)
        • tomal [to.mal] "great pool, - lake" (tor-mal → tomal, liquid deletion)

    3. Speed Augmentative (tor- -sim)

      • Circumfix combining the argumentative tor- with the translative -sim to mean a swift change in speed of the action

    Number Marking

    1. Plural Prefix (ma-)
      • Basic plural marker
      • Examples:
        • mator [ma.tor] "peaks, heights"
        • makel [ma.kel] "skies"
      • Interacts with case marking: ma-tor-el (PL-height-ERG)

    Adjectival Marking

    From its Proto-Hick root *kasu, with the sense of reflection upon a mirror-like surface, the prefix ka- was initially used to denote similarity. Over time, it had applied to a wide range of concepts, becoming a general adjectivizer.

    1. Similarity Prefix (ka-)

      • Prefix meaning "like, similar to"
      • Always surfaces as [kə-] due to regular vowel reduction
      • Examples:
        • ka-tor [kə.tor] "hill-like" (smaller than a mountain)
        • ka-mal [kə.mal] "pond-like" (smaller than a lake)
        • ka-bram [kə.bram] "tide-like" (rhythmic movement)
        • Natural Features: kətor "hill-like", kəmal "pond-like"
        • Animals: kəpel "bear-like", kəmer "bird-like"
        • Body Parts: kəbel "mouth-like", kəven "wing-like"
        • Weather: kəbran "storm-like", kəthral "mist-like"
        • Water Movement: kəran "stream-like", kəthrim "wave-like"
        • Plant Growth: kəthir "grass-like", kəbel "vine-like"
        • Sounds: kəmer "bird-like (sound)", kəsak "wolf-like (howl)"

    2. Adjectival Suffix (ka-)

      • Extended beyond just similarity, it has since been used to derive more metaphorically related concepts beyond a comparative sense. such as:
        • kasul [ka.sul] "energetic" < ka-sul "liver-like"
        • kames [ka.mes] "emotional" < ka-mes "heart-like"

    3. Use with Translative -sim When ka- prefixed forms take the translative suffix -sim, they indicate becoming like the base noun:

      a. Intransitive use (spontaneous change):

      mes-es kames-sim
heart-ABS heart.like-TRANS
"The heart becomes emotional" (lit. "becomes heart-like")

      b. Transitive use (caused change):

      sibris-el mes-es kames-sim
love-ERG heart-ABS heart.like-TRANS
"Love makes the heart emotional" (lit. "love makes heart become heart-like")

'al-el sul-es kasul-sim
person-ERG liver-ABS liver.like-TRANS
"The person energizes the liver" (lit. "person makes liver become liver-like")

      Note: In transitive uses, the ergative marks the agent causing the change, while the absolutive marks what undergoes the change.

    Demonstrative System

    1. Visible/Known
      • -is [is] "this" (inanimate)
      • -ʔis [ʔis] "this" (animate)
      • -en [en] "that" (inanimate)
      • -tan [tan] "that" (animate)
    2. Hidden but Sensed
      • -eth [eθ] "this/that" (inanimate)
      • -thir [θir] "this/that" (animate)
    3. Distant/Out of Sight
      • -um [um] "that" (inanimate)
      • -rum [rum] "that" (animate)

    Personal Reference

    1. Spatial Demonstratives
      • istal "this.place-person" (speaker's location)
      • etal "that.place-person" (addressee's location)
      • utal "far.place-person" (third party location)

    Negation System

    1. Basic Negation
      • mo- [mo]: general negation prefix Examples:
        • mo-thral "non-sacred, profane"
        • mo-ter "not flowing, stagnant"
        • mo-ward "misdirect, lead astray"

    Possession Marking

    1. Basic Possession
      • -ul [ul]: possessive suffix Examples:
      • mater-ul "vessel owner"
      • thral-ul "ritual keeper"

    Verbal Morphology

    Verbalizer

    • -'er ['er]: creates verbs from nouns and property concepts (See: Proto-Hick)
    • If -'er is preceded by a plosive, it surfaces as [er]
    mulis-'er [mulis.ʔer] "dreaminɡ"
tak-er [tak.er] "strike"

    Active verbs (from action/motion concepts):

    ai-es ter-'er
water-ABS flow-VERB
"Water flows"

materok-el 'al-es ward-'er
handler-ERG person-ABS guide-VERB
"The handler guides the person"

    Examples:

    Stative verbs (from property concepts):

    Stative verbs are formed from property concepts using the verbalizer -ʔer. In order to disambiguate from active verbs, in most cases, the adjectivizer prefix ka- is prepended to the verb.

    tor-thir-es kathral-'er
peak-KNOWN.ANIM-ABS ADJ-sacred-VERB
"The known peak is sacred"

kel-es ka-mar-'er
sky-ABS ADJ-red-VERB
"The sky is red"

    Examples:

    Note: Interpretation depends on base word semantics:

    • Action/motion roots → active verbs (ter "flow", ward "guide")
    • Property roots → stative verbs (thral "sacred") (See: Basic Terms)

    Volitional Marker

    • -arm: Indicates volitional mood, suggesting intention or willingness to perform an action.

    The -arm suffix replaces the -'er suffix in volitional contexts.

    Usage Example

    • sinasarm: "let's play" or "let's drift" < sinas-arm "play-VOLITION" → sinasarm

    This suffix allows speakers to express a desire or suggestion to perform an action, similar to the volitional mood in other languages.

    Desiderative Marker

    • -nat: Indicates desire or want to perform an action
    • Grammaticalized from full verb gnater "desire"
    • Replaces -'er suffix in desiderative contexts

    Usage Examples

    'ales vennat
person-ABS carry-DESID
"The person wants to carry"
materok-el rismater-es wardnat
handler-ERG reed.boat-ABS guide-DESID
"The handler wants to guide the reed boat"

    Note: Shows semantic development from full verb gnater "desire" to grammaticalized suffix through phonological reduction. Maintains ergative-absolutive alignment of main clause. ci

    Spatial Case System

    Early Hick's spatial case system interacts closely with verbal semantics, marking not only physical direction but also abstract state changes and causation.

    1. Basic Spatial Cases

      • -las (ILL): "inward, into"
      • -imris (ELL): "outward, from"
      • -itar (SUPE): "upward, upon"
      • -asam (SUBE): "downward, onto"
      • -esp (SUB): "under, below"

    2. Directional Usage

      materok-el rismater-las
handler-ERG reed.boat-ILL
"The handler enters the reed boat"

materok-el rismater-imris
handler-ERG reed.boat-ELL
"The handler exits the reed boat"

materok-el rismater-itar
handler-ERG reed.boat-SUPE
"The handler climbs onto the reed boat"

materok-el rismater-asam
handler-ERG reed.boat-SUBE
"The handler climbs down from the reed boat"

    3. Change of State

      kamar kel-es kakel-las
red sky-ABS blue-ILL
"red sky turns blue"

    4. Syntactic Properties

      • Supplants ergative case in motion contexts
      • Can be fronted for emphasis
      • Implies motion/change without overt verb
      • Interacts with causative constructions

    Adjectival Morphology

    Early Hick has no true adjective class. Quality concepts are expressed through:

    1. Stative Verbs (See: Verbal Morphology)

      • Uses verbalizer -ʔer
      • Takes absolutive argument Examples:
      kel-es kakel-ʔer
sky-ABS blue-VERB
"The sky is blue"

thral-el kel-es kakel-ʔer
ritual-ERG sky-ABS blue-VERB
"The ritual makes the sky blue"

    2. Change of State

      1. Translative (-sim):

        kel-es kakel-sim
sky.ABS blue.TRANS
"sky becomes blue"

      2. Directional Cases (-las/-imris):

        kamar kel-es kakel-las
red sky-ABS blue-ILL
"red sky turns blue"

    3. Notes:

      • No attributive modification
      • All qualities are verbal predicates
      • Follows ergative-absolutive alignment
      • Causatives marked by adding ergative agent

    Derivational Morphology

    Similarity Prefix

    • ka- [kə]: prefix meaning "like, similar to"
    • Always surfaces as [kə-] due to regular vowel reduction Examples:
    • ka-tor [kə.tor] "hill-like" (smaller than a mountain)
    • ka-mal [kə.mal] "pond-like" (smaller than a lake)
    • ka-bram [kə.bram] "tide-like" (rhythmic movement)

    Negation System

    • mo- [mo]: general negation prefix Examples:
    • mo-thral "non-sacred, profane"
    • mo-ter "not flowing, stagnant"
    • mo-ward "misdirect, lead astray"

    Compound Formation

    • Basic Pattern: modifier-head
    • Sound changes:
      • Liquid deletion: tor-mal → tomal
      • Nasal deletion: bram-mal → bramal
      • glottal stop deletion also removes immediately succeeding vowel: 'irur-'ilis → 'irurlis
      • Examples:
        • kur-tin → kurtin "bronze" (copper-tin)
        • bram-mater → brammater "river vessel" (tide-vessel)
        • thral-kel → thrakel "sun" (sacred-sky)

    Body Metaphors

    1. Breath as the soul
    2. Liver as source of life
    3. Heart as source of emotion
    4. Bones as structure
    5. Hands as tools
    6. Eyes as reality
    7. Skin as appearance
    8. Skin, Hair as abstract senses

    Affix Order

    Basic Template

    1. Root Structure

      • (PREFIX*) + ROOT + (SUFFIX*)
      • Maximum of three prefixes and two suffixes

    2. Order of Elements

    (NEG)-(SIZE)-(SIM)-ROOT-(AGENT)-(CASE)

    Examples:

    • mo-tor-el (NEG-height-ERG) "not the height (as agent)"
    • li-ka-mal-ok-es (DIM-SIM-pool-AGENT-ABS) "small pool-like keeper (as patient)"
    • tor-ka-mal-el (AUG-SIM-pool-ERG) "great pool-like thing (as agent)"

    Prefix Classes

    1. Outer Prefixes (first position)
      • mo- (NEG): negation
      • ma- (PL): plural
    2. Middle Prefixes (second position)
      • tor- (AUG): augmentative
      • li- (DIM): diminutive
    3. Inner Prefixes (closest to root)
      • ka- (SIM): similarity
      • is- (PROX): proximate
      • eth- (MED): medial
      • um- (DIST): distal

    Suffix Classes

    1. Inner Suffixes (closer to root)

      • -ok (AGENT): agentive
      • -er (ACT): active participant

    2. Outer Suffixes (final position)

      • -el (ERG): ergative case
      • -es (ABS): absolutive case
      • -imris (ELL): ellative case
      • -aes (ILL): illative case

    Restrictions

    1. Co-occurrence

      • Only one prefix from each position class
      • Maximum of one case suffix
      • Agent suffix must precede case suffix

    2. Phonological Interactions

      • Prefix ka- always reduces to [kə-]
      • Liquid deletion applies across morpheme boundaries
      • Nasal deletion applies across morpheme boundaries

    Syntax

    Property Words and Modification

    Early Hick uses property words (like English adjectives and adverbs) in three main ways:

    1. As Adjectives (modifying nouns)

      • Come before the noun they modify
      'irek litor-es etal
firm hill-ABS that.MED
"that firm hill" (like English "the tall tree")

    2. As Predicate Adjectives (with verb marking)

      litor-es ka'irek'er
hill-ABS ADJ-firm-VERB
"The hill is firm" (like English "The tree is tall")

    3. As Adverbs (modifying verbs)

      • Come after the verb they modify
      • Often take the similarity prefix ka-
      wen'altanes 'irek'er ka'irek
woman.MED.VIS.ANIM-ABS stand-VERB firm-SIM
"She stands firmly" (like English "-ly" adverbs)

    This pattern means that word order shows whether a property word is acting like an adjective (before nouns) or an adverb (after verbs).

    Clause Structure and Word Order

    1. Basic Patterns

      • Core arguments marked by case, allowing flexible word order
      • Ergative (-el) marks agent of transitive verbs
      • Absolutive (-es) marks patient of transitive & sole argument of intransitive
      • Word order signals pragmatic functions rather than grammatical roles

    2. Information Structure

      • Initial position: topic/focus or temporal frame

      • Final position: new information or emphasis

      • Examples:

        branum bramisimris kethes
past    river-ELL    sea-ABS
"In the past, the river flowed to the sea" (temporal frame first)

kethes bramisimris branum
sea-ABS river-ELL    past
"The river flowed to the sea, in the past" (neutral statement)

    3. Verb Position and Aspect

      • Verbs can occur in different positions based on aspect:

        materok-el rismater-es ward tel
handler-ERG reed.boat-ABS guide COMPL
"The handler has guided the reed boat" (completed action)

rismater-es ward kethes
reed.boat-ABS guide sea-ABS
"The reed boat guides to sea" (general statement)

      • Directional constructions allow goal prominence:

        keth-aes materok-el rismater-es
sea-ILL  handler-ERG reed.boat-ABS
"To sea the handler (takes) the reed boat"

    4. Temporal Reference

      • Time words can float freely but tend toward:

        • Initial: setting temporal frame for discourse
        • Pre-verbal: marking temporal contrast
        • Final: neutral narrative position

      • Examples:

        branum materok-el ward-ʔer  # Frame-setting
past    handler-ERG guide-VERB
"In the past, the handler guided"

materok-el branum ward-ʔer  # Temporal contrast
handler-ERG past    guide-ACT
"The handler USED TO guide"

materok-el ward-ʔer branum  # Neutral narrative
handler-ERG guide-ACT past
"The handler guided, in the past"

    See: Tense and Aspect for a complete description of:

    • Past reference markers (branum, branrum)
    • Future reference (mulsum)
    • Completive aspect (tel)
    • Position effects on temporal interpretation

    Tense

    Clauses without explicit temporal marking in Early Hick express present tense. These unmarked clauses can indicate either simple present ("walks") or present progressive ("is walking") readings, with the specific interpretation determined by context and predicate semantics. For example:

    'ales      barak'er
person-ABS walk-VERB
"The person walks/is walking"

    Tense Markers

    When temporal specification is required, Early Hick employs three temporal markers that operate at the clause level:

    • branum (past)
    • mulsum (future)
    • branrum (far past)

    Usage

    In a simple clause, the temporal tense marker can be typically found in the beginning or end of the clause.

    branum materok-el  ward-'er
past   handler-ERG guide-VERB
"The handler guided (in the past)"

    mulsum materok-el  ward-'er
future handler-ERG guide-VERB
"The handler will guide"

    In contexts where aesthetic or poetic effect is desired, the marker can be found right before the verbal phrase.

    'ales      mulsum barak'er
person-ABS future walk-VERB
"The person will walk"

    Relative Clauses

    In relative clauses where the dependent clause refers to a different time frame than the main clause, temporal markers may occur after the relativizer. See: Relative Clauses

    For example:

    'altanel         ['alises branum thren'er] ward'er
man-MED.VIS.ANIM [WHO-ABS PAST watch.VERB] guide.VERB
"That man who watched, (currently) guides"

    mulsum   'altanel         ['alises branum thren'er] ward'er
FUT      man-MED.VIS.ANIM [WHO-ABS PAST watch.VERB] guide.VERB
"That man who watched, will guide"

    Complex Clauses

    When clauses are linked by coordinators, each clause may carry its own temporal marking to indicate different time frames:

    [clause + temporal marker] coordinator [clause + temporal marker]

    Note that the flexibility of the temporal marker position is still available in each clause

    The Distant Past Marker branrum

    Early Hick has developed a special case marker for use when referring to events that had occurred in the distant past. The marker branrum is often only ever uttered in either religious contexts or in epic poetry.

    When it is used, it functions similarly to the past marker branum.

    Aspect

    Early Hick aspect markers are typically found following the verbalized word that they modify, however, in some aesthetic contexts, they may be placed at the end of the clause.

    These aspect markers may be used in conjunction with the temporal markers to indicate different time frames.

    When a clause does not carry an aspect marker, it is understood to be either in the simple or the progressive aspect.

    Progressive Aspect Marker terum

    In cases where the speaker wishes to emphasize ongoing or continuous states, the progressive aspect marker terum (< ter "flow" + -rum) can be used. These aspect markers may be used in conjunction with the temporal markers to indicate different time frames.

    'ales      barak'er  terum
person-ABS walk-VERB flow.DIST
"The person is walking"

branum 'ales      barak'er  terum
PAST   person-ABS walk-VERB flow.DIST
"The person has been walking"

    Completive Aspect Marker tel

    The completive aspect marker tel indicates finished actions.

    'ales      barak'er  tel
person-ABS walk-VERB COMPL
"The person has walked"

branum 'ales      barak'er  tel
PAST   person-ABS walk-VERB COMPL
"The person had walked"

    Iterative Aspect

    The Early Hick iterative marker works differently from the other aspect markers. It instead marks on an action word and replaces the verbalizer -'er. It has three register-dependent forms, all deriving from Proto-Hick *heru-heru "motion-motion":

    1. Formal/Ritual: -'irur

      'ales barak'irur
person-ABS walk-ITER
"The person walks repeatedly" (formal/ritual context)

    2. Common: -rur

      'ales barakrur
person-ABS walk.ITER
"The person walks repeatedly" (everyday usage)

    3. Colloquial: -ur

      'ales barakur
person-ABS walk.ITER
"The person walks repeatedly" (casual speech)

    The development shows typical grammaticalization path:

    1. Reduplicated noun *heru-heru > 'irur "repetition"
    2. Grammaticalization to verbal suffix -'irur
    3. Phonological reduction in common speech (-rur)
    4. Further reduction in colloquial register (-ur)

    Note: The formal register preserves the etymological form with glottal stop, while common and colloquial registers show progressive reduction typical of grammaticalized elements.

    Interrogatives

    1. Basic Forms

      • 'alis [ʔaka.lis] "who" < 'aka-'al-'is (what-person-PROX.ANIM)
        • Used for visible/known referents and confirmation
      • 'atal [ʔa.tal] "where" < 'aka-tal-is (what-place-PROX.INAN)
      • 'ater [ʔa.ter] "when" < 'aka-ter-is (what-flow-PROX.INAN)
        • Shows temporal metaphor of time as flow
      • 'aker [ʔa.ker] "how" < 'aka-'er-is (what-VERB-PROX.INAN)

    2. Medial Forms (Hidden but Sensed)

      • 'akaleth [ʔa.leθ] < 'aka-'al-eth "who" (sensed person)
      • 'akateth [ʔa.teθ] < 'aka-tal-eth "where" (sensed location)
      • 'akatereth [ʔe.te.leθ] < 'aka-ter-eth "when" (sensed time)
      • 'akereth [ʔa.ke.reθ] < 'aka-'er-eth "how" (sensed manner)

    3. Distal Forms (Out of Sight/Unknown)

      • 'akalum [ʔa.lum] < 'aka-'al-um "who" (unknown person)
      • 'atum [ʔa.tum] < 'aka-tal-um "where" (unknown location)
      • 'aterum [ʔa.te.rum] < 'aka-ter-um "when" (unknown time)
      • 'akerum [ʔa.ke.rum] < 'aka-'er-um "how" (unknown manner)

    4. Usage Examples

      'alis-el materok-es ward-'er?
who.PROX-ERG boat-ABS guide-VERB
"Who (that we can see) guides the boat?"

'aleth-el thral-es his-'er?
who.MED-ERG ritual-ABS watch-VERB
"Who (that we can hear/sense) watches the ritual?"

'atum-aes materok-el rismater-es ward-'er?
where.DIST-ILL handler-ERG reed.boat-ABS guide-VERB
"Where (unknown) does the handler guide the reed boat to?"

    5. Semantic Notes

      • Proximal forms: Used for visible/known referents and confirmation
      • Medial forms: Used for sensed but not seen referents (sounds, smells, etc.)
      • Distal forms: Default information-seeking questions about unknowns
      • All forms take regular case marking based on syntactic role
      • Follow standard compound phonology (See: Compound Phonology)

    See: Compound Phonology for sound change patterns

    Relative Clauses

    Early Hick forms relative clauses using interrogative pronouns as relativizers. These maintain their proximal/medial/distal distinctions and take case marking based on their syntactic role within the relative clause.

    1. Basic Structure

      ['alisel tiraies ter'er] barak'erimris vinudes
[who.ERG ale.ABS drink.VERB] walk.VERB-ELL dwelling.ABS
"Who drinks the ale walks home"

    2. Interrogative Forms Used

      • alis/aleth/alum: "who" (animate referents)
      • atal/ateth/atum: "where" (locations)
      • atel/ateleth/atelum: "when" (time)
      • aker/akereth/akerum: "how" (manner)

    3. Case Marking

      • Relativizer takes case based on its role in the relative clause
      • Main clause maintains independent case marking
      'altanel [alises thren'er] ward'er
man-MED.VIS.ANIM [who.ABS watch.VERB] guide.VERB
"That man who watches guides"

    4. Evidentiality Through Distance Forms

      • Proximal (-is): visible/known referents
      • Medial (-eth): sensed but not seen referents
      • Distal (-um): unknown/general referents
      ['alumel materokes ward'er] thren'er
[who.DIST.ERG boat.ABS guide.VERB] watch.VERB
"Who(ever) guides the boat watches"

    5. Word Order

      • Relative clause typically precedes its head
      • Internal word order follows main clause patterns
      • Spatial case marking on verbs functions normally

    Dialects

    Inland Dialect

    Case Variation

    The standard ellative -imris appears as -iter in some inland dialects, showing older forms preserved away from maritime contact. This explains forms like:

    • Standard: vinuimris "to give birth" < vinu-imris "pregnancy-ELL"
    • Inland: venuiter "to give birth" < venu-iter "burden-ELL.DIAL"

    This dialectal variation is preserved in the formal birthday greeting:

    'ilitar venuiteres
good-SUPER birth-ELL.DIAL-ABS
"blessings upon your birth"

    Note: The greeting preserves the inland dialect form, suggesting its origin in older agricultural communities before maritime trade influence.

    Development Notes

    Development Notes

    Case Development

    Superessive (-itar)

    The Early Hick superessive marker -itar derives from Proto-Hick *ʔita haranu "above the break/horizon":

    1. Initial compound: *ʔita haranu "above horizon"
    2. Fusion and reduction: > *ʔitharan
    3. Grammaticalization: > -itar
      • Loss of final nasal
      • Semantic broadening from "above horizon" to general "upon/above"
      • Shift from independent word to bound morpheme

    Ellative (-imris)

    The Early Hick ellative marker -imris derives from Proto-Hick *imeru-ris "towards breath/spirit":

    1. Initial compound: *imeru-ris "towards breath"
    2. Fusion and reduction: > *imeris
    3. Nasal epenthesis: > -imris
      • Semantic shift from "towards breath" to "outward motion"
      • Parallel development as subordinator "because"
      • Shows common path: body/breath terms → spatial/causal markers

    Subessive (-asam)

    The Early Hick subessive marker -asam derives from the noun asam "rest, resting place" < PH *xasamu:

    1. Original noun: "rest, resting place"
    2. Metaphorical extension: "place beneath/under"
    3. Grammaticalization: > -asam
      • Semantic broadening from "resting place" to general "under/beneath"
      • Shift from independent noun to bound case marker
      • Shows common path: concrete spatial term → abstract case marker
      • Parallel development in compound vinusam "shoulder" (< *vinu xasamu "yoke rest")
      • Maintains unstressed vowel reduction in both uses

    Development of Demonstratives and Perception Verbs

    Development of Demonstratives and Perception Verbs

    Proximal Demonstrative -is and -'is

    The Early Hick proximal demonstrative -is and the verb 'is "see" share a common origin in Proto-Hick *hisu "visible/in sight":

    1. Original PH *hisu had related meanings:

      • Demonstrative: "this one here (that I can see)"
      • Evidential: "visibly/apparently"
      • Sensory: "sight/vision"

    2. Development paths:

      • Demonstrative: *hisu > -is (PROX.INAN)
      • Animate marker: *hi-'isu > -'is (PROX.ANIM)
      • Perception: *hisu > 'is "see"

    3. Later developments:

      • Dialectal *hilis "look" borrowed to disambiguate active perception
      • Original *his reintroduced as "see" to maintain active/passive distinction
      • Demonstratives -is/-'is retained distinct functions:
        • -is: proximal inanimate ("this thing here")
        • -'is: proximal animate ("this person/animal here")

    This explains:

    • The formal similarity between demonstratives and perception verbs
    • Why there are two demonstrative forms (-is/-'is) with animacy distinction
    • The need for dialectal borrowing to maintain semantic distinctions
    • The preservation of h- in his/hilis despite normal sound changes